0 Kit (USB Products, Affymetrics). A PCR product amplified using primers relBEFup and relFdwn, and treated with Exonuclease I and shrimp alkaline phosphatase (ThermoScientific), was used as the template for the sequencing reactions. Samples were analyzed by 7M urea-6% polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Protein electrophoresis and western blots To prepare lysates, bacteria were grown to an OD600 of ~0.7 and expression of T7 RNA polymerase was induced for 1 h by adding 1mM IPTG. Control cultures were grown without IPTG. Bacteria were spinned down and lysed in Laemmli sample buffer. Proteins were separated by tricin–SDS–13% polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis [74]. For detection of the His6-tagged toxins, Salubrinal supplier the proteins were

electroblotted onto Hybond-ECL nitrocellulose membrane filters (GE Healthcare) and probed with nickel-activated horseradish peroxidase (HisProbeTM-HRP; Thermo Scientific). Growth resumption experiments Overnight cultures were grown from fresh single colonies for 17–18 h in LB supplemented with 0.2% glucose and diluted 500-fold, into 3 ml of broth. After 2 h of incubation,

1 mM IPTG was added to initiate synthesis of green fluorescent protein (GFP). Expression of GFP was induced for 2.5 h. Then, cells were collected by centrifugation and transferred into LB supplemented with 0.2% L-arabinose to induce toxin synthesis. During the change of the medium, the culture was diluted 10-fold. After 90 min, the growth medium was changed to LB containing 0.2% glucose to stop the production of toxins, this time with 2-fold dilution. learn more Starting from the induction of toxin synthesis, samples were taken for flow cytometry analysis and OD600 measurement. For flow cytometry analysis,

the samples were mixed with an equal volume of 30% glycerol in PBS and stored at −80°C pending analysis. After dilution with sterile C1GALT1 PBS, the samples were analyzed using an LSRII and a high-throughput sampler (BD) with a laser beam maximum wavelength of 488 nm. The results were analyzed by using FlowJo 7.2.1software. Reproducibility of experiments All growth inhibition (Additional file 1: Figure S1) and growth resumption experiments (Additional file 1: Figure S5, S6) were repeated at least three times. All northern blot (Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 Additional file 1: Figures S2, S3), primer extension mapping (Additional file 1: Figure S4) and in vivo translation experiments (Figure 6) were repeated at least twice with similar results. buy MM-102 Typical results are presented for these experiments and for the FACS analysis of growth resumption (Additional file 1: Figure S6). Acknowledgements This work was supported by Estonian Science Foundation grant 8822 and by the European Regional Development Fund through the Center of Excellence in Chemical Biology. We thank Kenn Gerdes, Edita Sužiedėlienė, and Kim Lewis for plasmids and strains; and Vasili Hauryliuk, Ülo Maiväli, Isabella Moll and Arvi Jõers for comments on the manuscript.