Quantitative analysis was performed using a one-point curve method using external standards of authentic ginsenosides. Total

RNA was extracted from the frozen samples with the RNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA, USA) including the DNase I digestion step. Next, 2 μg total RNA was reverse transcribed with the RevertAid H Minus M-MuLV reverse transcriptase (Fermentas, Hanover, MD, USA). Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was performed using 100 ng cDNA in a reaction volume of 10 μL using SYBR Green Sensimix Plus Master Mix (Quantace, Watford, UK). The thermal cycler conditions recommended by the manufacturer were used: 10 min at 95°C, followed by 40 cycles at 95°C for 10 s, 60°C for 10 s, and 72°C for 20 s. The fluorescent product was detected during the final step of each cycle. Amplification, detection, Tofacitinib cost and data analysis were carried out on a Rotor-Gene 6000 real-time rotary analyzer (Corbett Life Science, Sydney, Australia). The primers used were 5′-CCT CGC CAG ATT TGG AGT AA-3′ and 5′-GCA CAG AAC CGG AAG ATA GC-3′ for PgSS (AB115496); 5′-GAT GTG CCT GGA CAA AAG GT-3′ and 5′-AGG ATG GCG CGC ATA TTG AAA G-3′ for PgSE (AB122078); 5′-GAG AGA TCC GAC ACC TCT GC-3′ and 5′-ATT TTG AGC TGC TGG TGC TT-3′. To determine the relative fold-differences in template abundance for each sample, the Ct values for each of the gene-specific primers were

normalized to the Ct value for β-actin (5′-AGA RG7420 cost GAT TCC GCT GTC CAG AA-3′ and

5′-ATC AGC GAT ACC AGG GAA CA-3′) and calculated relative to a calibrator using the formula 2−ΔΔCt. The values of the ginsenoside contents and relative gene expression were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Statistical analyses were carried out using GraphPad Prism software (San Diego, CA, USA) by one-way analysis of variance. Duncan’s multiple range test was used to test for significant differences between Sodium butyrate the treatments at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01. The ginsenoside contents of the ginseng leaves and roots were evaluated at different foliation stages. As a perennial herbal plant, ginseng leaves fall and sprout annually, with flowers and berries developing in the 3rd yr of growth. As shown in Fig. 1, we sampled three different stages of leaves, which we referred to as (a) “closed”, (b) “intermediate”, and (c) “opened”, from 3-yr-old ginseng plants cultured by hydroponics. When the ginseng plants sprouted, their leaves appeared closed (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2) and they had an average leaf length of 3 cm, an average shoot height of 7 cm, and an average main root length of 9 cm (Fig. 1Ba). In this early developmental stage, the flower bud was already formed, although the peduncle was short (Fig. 2A). In the intermediate leaf stage (Fig. 2A), the average leaf length was 4.5 cm and the average peduncle length was 4.5 cm. After foliation, the leaves expanded (Fig. 2A) and the flower buds started to bloom (Fig.