The CecExt was prepared by adding 10 g cecal digesta into 90 ml distill water. The resulting mixture was shaken at 110 rpm at 22°C for 30 minutes and then the supernatant recovered from the mixture was filtrated through a filter (Corning Inc., Corning, New York, USA) with the pore size of 0.22 μm. The media of MRS [22], RB [23], VL [24], and DAM [25] were tested for the selection

of DON-transforming bacteria. Sample collection and microbial cultures Intestinal digesta was obtained from Leghorn hens. The chickens were housed on floor with free access to water and a layer diet. All research procedures for using chickens complied with the University of Guelph Animal Care Committee Guidelines. To collect digesta samples, the chickens were euthanized by cervical dislocation and their intestines were removed, placed in plastic bags, and immediately brought into an anaerobic chamber

(Coy Laboratory Navitoclax Products Inc., Grass Lake, Michigan, USA) with atmosphere of 95% CO2 and 5% H2. Digesta was removed from the small and large intestine of individual birds and kept separately for selecting bacteria. The crop content was also collected and selleckchem each sample was generated by combining the crop content from three chickens in the same treatment group. Microbial cultures were established by adding 0.2 g digesta into 1 ml L10 broth and incubated at 37°C for 72 hrs in the anaerobic chamber. This incubation condition was used throughout all experiments unless described otherwise. Microbial subcultures were obtained from inoculation of a fresh medium with 10% initial culture followed by incubation. Thiamine-diphosphate kinase DON (100 μg ml-1) was included in the media (broth) for all experiments unless otherwise indicated. DNA extraction, PCR amplification, and DNA sequence analysis QIAamp® DNA Stool Mini Kit (QIAGEN Canada, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada) was used to extract genomic DNA from digesta or mixed microbial cultures following the manufacturer’s instructions. Qiagen DNeasy Tissue Kit was used to extract genomic DNA from

pure cultures of bacterial isolates. The 16S rRNA genes were amplified from genomic DNA of the isolates by PCR using Alpelisib eubacterial primers F8 (5′-AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3′) and R1541 (5′-AAGGAGGTGATCCAAGCC-3′) as described previously [26]. PCR amplicons were sequenced using primer 16S1100r (5′-AGGGTTGCGCTCGTTG-3′). Partial 16S rDNA sequences corresponding to Escherichia coli 16S rRNA bases 300 to 1050 were compared with the GenBank, EMBI, and DBJI nonredundant nucleotide databases using BLAST analysis. The sequences were also submitted to Ribosomal Database Project (RDP) Classifier for identification of the isolates. PCR-DGGE bacterial profile analysis The V3 region of the 16S rRNA genes (position 339 to 539 in the E.