These two points,

specificity and plasticity, provide the foundation for neuroimaging methods to inhibitor EPZ-5676 examine whether physical activity, fitness, or exercise has any appreciable effect on the morphology or function of the human brain. Given the principles described above, neuroimaging studies exploring these associations have hypothesized that physical activity would influence the morphology and function of the human brain and that the effects would be widespread but most consistently associated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with regions that support higher-level cognitive functions such as the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. One of the unfortunate characteristics of the brain is that it generally shrinks and Imatinib Mesylate atrophies with advancing age. In fact, both the prefrontal cortex

and hippocampus shrink at roughly 1% to 2% annually in individuals over the age of 55,26 with more precipitous rates Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of atrophy when individuals begin experiencing cognitive impairment.27 Although the rate and trajectory of decline varies from region to region, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the general finding is that regions that support memory and executive functions show the earliest and most rapid decline.26 Interestingly, the loss of brain volume is mirrored by age-related changes in cognitive function with the most significant losses occurring on memory and executive tasks.28 Yet, it is these cognitive domains and brain areas that appear the most sensitive to physical activity training. Would greater amounts of physical activity or higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels have any beneficial or positive associations with the morphology of the older adult brain? There Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical have now been several studies finding that older adults who are more fit,29-33 more physically active,34-36 and who participate in exercise interventions37,38 have greater brain volumes than their less fit and less active counterparts. In one cross-sectional study, cardiorespiratory

fitness levels were assessed in Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a sample of cognitively healthy older adults and voxel-based morphometry was used to assess gray matter volume.29 Although increased age was associated Cilengitide with reductions in gray matter volume throughout the prefrontal, temporal, and parietal cortices, these same brain regions showed less atrophy in adults that were more fit. These results demonstrated that remaining more aerobically fit could help to preserve brain tissue that would normally atrophy with age. Higher fitness levels have now been associated with greater gray matter volume in other populations, including postmenopausal women receiving hormone therapy,39 a higher educated older adult sample,40 a sample with multiple sclerosis,41 and older adults with mild cognitive impairment.