By means of in vivo fate mapping, we found a striking variability of immune responses derived from individual CD8(+) T cells and show that robust acute and recall immunity requires the initial recruitment of multiple precursors. Unbiased mathematical modeling identifies the random integration of multiple differentiation and division events as the driving force behind this variability. Within this probabilistic framework, cell fate is specified along a linear developmental path that progresses from slowly proliferating long-lived to rapidly expanding short-lived subsets. These data provide insights into how complex biological systems implement stochastic processes to

guarantee robust outcomes.”
“Upon infection, antigen-specific CD8(+) T lymphocyte responses display a highly reproducible pattern of expansion and contraction that is thought to reflect a uniform behavior of individual Niraparib mouse cells. We tracked the progeny

of individual mouse CD8(+) T cells Citarinostat manufacturer by in vivo lineage tracing and demonstrated that, even for T cells bearing identical T cell receptors, both clonal expansion and differentiation patterns are heterogeneous. As a consequence, individual naive T lymphocytes contributed differentially to short-and long-term protection, as revealed by participation of their progeny during primary versus recall infections. The discordance in fate of individual naive T cells argues against asymmetric division as a singular driver of CD8(+) T cell heterogeneity and demonstrates that reproducibility of CD8(+) T cell responses is achieved through population averaging.”
“Visual imagery during sleep has long been a topic diglyceride of persistent speculation, but its private nature has hampered objective analysis. Here we present a neural decoding approach in which machine-learning models predict

the contents of visual imagery during the sleep-onset period, given measured brain activity, by discovering links between human functional magnetic resonance imaging patterns and verbal reports with the assistance of lexical and image databases. Decoding models trained on stimulus-induced brain activity in visual cortical areas showed accurate classification, detection, and identification of contents. Our findings demonstrate that specific visual experience during sleep is represented by brain activity patterns shared by stimulus perception, providing a means to uncover subjective contents of dreaming using objective neural measurement.”
“Background: HIV evolves rapidly at the epidemiological level but also at the within-host level. The virus’ within-host evolutionary rates have been argued to be much higher than its between-host evolutionary rates. However, this conclusion relies on analyses of a short portion of the virus envelope gene.