The same can be said for other annual statistics. Notably, the DBS procedure is able to reproduce the pattern of rainfall during different seasons. The monsoon season, which accounts for nearly 96% of rainfall (Rana et al., 2012), is well represented in the scaled data. The original values 85.1% and 85% in the raw NCAR_CCSM4 and NorESM1_M projections, respectively, selleck screening library after DBS application increase to 94.3% and 95.1%, as compared to 95.8% in the observations.

It can be observed in Table 2 that there is slight overestimation of rainfall in the post-monsoon season (especially for September), while rainfall in June is underestimated, indicating a delayed onset of the Monsoon season in the GCMs (see also Fig. 1). The DBS application is not able to correct this late onset of the monsoon in the GCMs (Fig. 1), and the case may be the same when we are analysing future projections. This can also be observed for individual months during the monsoon season, as a slight correctional shift in the amount of rainfall received compared to observed data. Extreme value statistics are represented in Table 3 and Fig. 2 for 1, 2, 3 and 7 consecutive days. In the case of raw GCM data the extremes are below the observed values (Fig. 2), which is to be expected considering the differing spatial scales of a GCM compared to www.selleckchem.com/products/Dapagliflozin.html a precipitation station. It can be observed from the table that the

mean (153 mm) and standard deviation (42.2 mm) of extreme events for all the observed data (1-day maximum) are well represented in the DBS-corrected GCM data, being 154 mm and 45.8 mm, respectively, for the NCAR_CCSM4 projection and 139.9 mm and 51.2 mm, respectively, for the NorESM1_M projection. The same can be observed for 2, 3 and 7-day maximum

values where there is marked improvement in the statistics after the scaling procedure. Observed 1-day Lognormal values for the 50 (284 mm) and 100 (309.6 mm) year return periods are heptaminol well represented in the scaled data, being 282 mm and 307 mm for NCAR_CCSM4 and 285 mm and 31 6 mm for NorESM1_M, respectively. Similarly, the 1-day Gumbel distribution values for the 50 (263 mm) and 100 (286 mm) year return periods are well represented in the scaled data, being 272 mm and 297 mm for NCAR_CCSM4 and 272 mm and 300 mm for NorESM1_M, respectively. Lognormal distribution is a continuous probability distribution whose logarithm is normally distributed whereas Gumbel come from distributions that are not bounded above but do have a full set of finite moments. Thus the two provides different facets of data maximum. In our results, there is a systematical difference between the values obtained from Lognormal and Gumbel distribution fitting wherein Lognormal values are always a bit higher than Gumbel in the observed, raw and bias-corrected datasets.

Given its established role in action value coding, the BG is again an a priori candidate for this function. We recently found evidence consistent with this hypothesis [50••]. We analyzed trials of our reorderable working memory task where context appeared in the middle position, between the presentation of the two lower-level items. When this ‘context middle’ stimulus rendered the preceding lower-level item irrelevant, we observed a large benefit to behavioral performance PCI 32765 when sufficient time followed presentation of the context. This benefit was much larger than that seen in any

other condition — as though subjects required time to reallocate working memory capacity occupied by the irrelevant item. This result parallels others (see [50••]) demonstrating a sluggish time course for WM reallocation, with irrelevant information impacting behavior even 1.5 s later. We predicted that this slowing could occur because to-be-removed items were nonetheless predicted to have utility, even though they were specified as irrelevant by the contextual stimulus. To test this counterintuitive prediction, we adapted a simple reinforcement learning model to track the likelihood that each item, regardless of the context in which it was presented, would in fact be associated with the correct answer. Learning rates in this model were fit to reaction

times in our behavioral task, and from this, we predicted a function of trial-to-trial predicted utility of irrelevant check details items. This timecourse correlated with activation in ventral striatum in a separate fMRI experiment. By contrast, the Coproporphyrinogen III oxidase model-based estimates of the utility of relevant items were tracked by recruitment in frontal, not striatal regions ( Figure 3c,d). These results motivate the inclusion of BG-mediated mechanisms in models of WM reallocation [51] and

other WM control processes. They also reaffirm the dichotomous stability vs. flexibility functions sometimes ascribed to frontal vs. striatal regions in the service of working memory, as well as the opposing actions of dopamine on these two areas. One intriguing possibility consistent with these results is that BG-mediated gating mechanisms might be capable of ‘vetoing’ the clearance of information from working memory, analogous to the motoric preservation induced by stimulation of the ventral striatum [52]. Working memory contends with the complexity of the real world via a set of control processes that select what items to maintain, which maintained items to use, and the priority of items within memory. Many of these demands are analogous to those faced in movement selection by the motor system. Accordingly, fronto-striatal mechanisms for motor selection might be elaborated in more rostral frontostriatal circuits and used for more abstract working memory operations. This long-held hypothesis has now been subjected to empirical tests.

Aproximadamente 55% dos participantes eram casados

ou viviam em união de facto. Cerca de 57% eram bacharéis ou licenciados e 8,7% apresentavam grau académico superior a licenciatura. No que diz respeito ao rendimento mensal do agregado familiar, 17,4% apresentavam rendimentos inferiores a 1.000 euros, 35,3% dos participantes referiu valores entre 1.000-2.000 euros e outros 35% superiores a 2.000 euros. O questionário foi respondido por indivíduos residentes em praticamente todos os distritos de Portugal (com exceção de Bragança e Portalegre), incluindo as Regiões Autónomas da Madeira e dos Açores. A grande maioria dos participantes residia no distrito de Lisboa (35,9%), Porto (17,4%), Braga (7,7%), Setúbal (6,7%), Leira (6,2%) e Coimbra (6,2%), como elucidado na tabela 2.

Caracterizaram-se as circunstâncias em que os participantes tiveram conhecimento de que apresentavam DC (tabela 3). Verificou-se que STA-9090 concentration a idade mediana de diagnóstico correspondeu a 27 anos, variando entre os 17-36 anos e 79,5% dos participantes referiu ter sido diagnosticado tendo por base a avaliação histológica com biopsia duodenal. De salientar que 70% dos inquiridos foram diagnosticados na idade adulta. Os principais sintomas vivenciados pelos participantes antes do diagnóstico incluíam dor abdominal (75,4%), diarreia (72,8%), distensão abdominal (58,5%), perda de peso (52,3%), nervosismo/irritabilidade (52,3%) e flatulência (50,3%). Apenas 3,6% referiu não ter apresentado qualquer sintoma. A esmagadora maioria (97,4%) dos participantes referiu tentar cumprir a DIG na sua alimentação diária. Cerca de metade (52,3%) mencionou nunca consumir alimentos com glúten; Epacadostat mw pelo contrário, 10,8% dos participantes assinalaram consumir alimentos com glúten diariamente. A todos aqueles que responderam consumir alimentos com glúten, independentemente da frequência (n = 93), solicitou-se que apontassem as razões que os levavam a quebrar a DIG e perguntava-se

igualmente quais os sintomas vivenciados após o consumo destes alimentos. As principais razões apontadas para quebrar a dieta e consumir alimentos com glúten incluíam a falta de alternativa (35,5%), escolha própria (34,4%), o preço dos AESG (21,5%) e não gostar do sabor e/ou textura dos AESG (15,1%). Após o consumo de alimentos 4��8C com glúten, metade dos participantes experimentava dor/distensão abdominal (51,6%), 47,3% queixavam-se de diarreia, 18,3% vivenciavam alterações de humor, 17,2% experimentavam náuseas/vómitos e 7,5% referiram depressão. Aproximadamente 25,8% experimentavam, pelo menos, 3 sintomas após o consumo de alimentos com glúten e 24,3% referiram não vivenciar qualquer sintoma. Mais de metade dos participantes (53,3%) consideravam que a sua alimentação atual era mais saudável comparativamente à que realizavam antes de serem diagnosticados e apenas 4,1% consideravam o contrário. Cerca de 43% consideravam que a sua alimentação atual era tão saudável quanto aquela que praticavam antes do diagnóstico de DC.

01). The temperature measurements showed that both irradiation conditions caused intrapulpal temperature increase below 2 °C. The highest temperature increase and the time after which the temperature returned to its initial values were respectively 0.3 °C and 12 s for the irradiation with 8 J/cm2 and 1.8 °C and 93 s for the irradiation with 11 J/cm2 (Fig. 1). The results of the present study showed that the irradiation of dentine with a CO2 laser (λ = 10.6 μm) at 11 J/cm2 and 10 ms pulse duration, after fluoride application was indeed able to cause a decrease in the loss of calcium and phosphorous in the demineralization solution. The selleck chemicals calcium loss in this group

was even statistically significant lower than the

observed in the fluoride-treated group. Thus, the possibility of enhancing the effects of fluoride through CO2 laser irradiation has been demonstrated. Especially interesting to note is that these results were obtained with a clinical CO2 laser and using parameters which did not cause any visible thermal damage to the tooth surfaces. Similar findings have been observed by other authors measuring calcium and phosphorous dissolution14, 15 and 16 and lesion depth19 in CO2 laser-irradiated dentine. Nonetheless decrease in calcium and phosphorous Nivolumab ic50 losses after irradiation with the set of parameters used in the present study has not been demonstrated before. Moreover, most of the previous studies were conducted with a CO2 laser emitting in the continuous-wave mode, which is not the safest condition for irradiating vital teeth.18 The lowest energy density tested in this study (8 J/cm2) did not cause any significant reduction in mineral loss either alone or in combination with fluoride.

This was initially not expected, because according to the literature and the characteristics of the laser–tissue interaction for the 10.6 μm wavelength, this energy density could already be sufficient to promote the necessary changes in the tissue. For example, in a study conducted with the same pulse duration (10 ms) as used in the present study, but in enamel, a 67%-inhibition of demineralization was observed with 10 J/cm2.24 Thus, knowing that for similar irradiation intensities the temperatures produced in dentine are two times higher than they Bcl-w are in enamel, theoretically only half of the amount of an energy density, successfully tested in enamel, would be necessary to cause the same effects in dentine.18 Therefore, we expected to obtain a reduction in calcium loss already with the lowest energy density tested in the present study, but this was not confirmed. These results are probably explained by the fact that the energy applied to the tissue is not the only factor influencing the temperature excursions. The number of pulses applied to the same spot and the repetition rate also play an important role in the gradients of temperature formed.

Of Sci. And Tech., 8916-5, Takayam, Ikoma 630-0192 JAPANE-mail: [email protected] Web: http://Mpmi2011.umin.jp/index.html SOCIETY FOR INVERTEBRATE PATHOLOGY 44th ANNUAL

MEETING 07–11 August Halifax, NS, CANADA Info: S. Bjornson, Biol. Dept., Saint Mary’s Univ., 923 Robie St., Halifax, NS B3H 3C3, CANADA Fax: 1-902-420-5261 Voice: 1-902-496-8751 E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.sipweb.org/meeting.cfm 3rd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ENVIRON-MENTAL WEEDS & INVASIVE PLANTS (Intractable Weeds and PlantInvaders) 02–07 October Ascona, SWITZERLAND C. Bohren ACW Changins, PO Box 1012, CH-1260 Nyon, SWITZERLAND Voice: 41-79-659-4704 E-mail: [email protected] Web: http://tinyurl.com/24wnjxo KU-60019 manufacturer Entomological Society of America Annual Meeting 13–16 November Reno, NV, USA ESA, 9301 Annapolis Rd., Lanham, MD 20706-3115, USA Fax: 1-301-731-4538 E-mail: [email protected] Web: http://www.entsoc.org 10th International Congress of Plant Pathology, “The Role of Plant Pathology in a Globalized Economy” 25–31 August Beijing, CHINA 2012 3rd Global Conference on Plant Pathology for Food Security at the Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology 10–13 Jan 2012 Udaipur, India Voice: 0294-2470980, +919928369280 E-mail: [email protected] SOUTHERN WEED SCIENCE SOCIETY (U.S.) ANNUAL

MEETING 23–25 January Charleston, SC, USA SWSS, 205 W. Boutz, Bldg. 4, Ste. 5, Las Cruces, NM

88005, USA Voice: 1-575-527-1888 E-mail: DAPT mouse [email protected] Web: www.swss.ws 7th INTERNATIONAL IPM SYMPOSIUM 2012 – March USA, in planning phase E. Wolff E-mail: [email protected] VI INTERNATIONAL WEED SCIENCE CONGRESS 17–22 June Dynamic Weeds, Diverse Solutions, Hangzhou, CHINA H.J. Huang, IPP, CAAS, No. 2 West Yuanmingyuan Rd., Beijing 100193, CHINA Fax/voice: 86-10-628-15937 E-mail: [email protected] Florfenicol Web: www.iwss.info/coming_events.asp 2013 INTERNATIONAL HERBICIDE RESISTANCE CONFERENCE 18–22 February Perth, AUSTRALIA S. Powles, AHRI, School of Plant Biol., Univ. of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy., Crawley, Perth 6009, WA, AUSTRALIA Fax: 61-8-6488-7834 Voice: 61-8-6488-7870 E-mail: [email protected] Full-size table Table options View in workspace Download as CSV “
“See Covering the Cover synopsis on page 1139. Collagenous colitis, a subgroup of microscopic colitis, is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease characterized by chronic watery diarrhea and few or no endoscopic abnormalities. A considerable number of patients suffer from additional symptoms, such as abdominal pain, nocturnal diarrhea, fecal incontinence, and weight loss.1 and 2 Due to the symptom burden, collagenous colitis impairs the patient’s quality of life significantly, in a manner similar to other inflammatory bowel diseases.

This mutant still induced IL8 expression, indicating that the bacterial flagellum is not the major inducer of IL8 in this system ( Supplementary Figure 4E). We then asked whether specific cells in the organoids respond to the

bacteria and used our differentiation protocol to generate gland-type or pit-type organoids, which we subsequently microinjected with H pylori. IL8 expression was substantially higher in gland-type organoids than in pit-type organoids ( Figure 6F). Here, we present a long-term 3-dimensional organoid culture system for primary, untransformed human gastric epithelium as well as human gastric cancer. By using this culture, we provide SB203580 cell line direct evidence for the presence of stem cells in adult human gastric tissue. The cells can be directed

to differentiate into specific lineages of the stomach. The organoids mount an NF-κB–driven inflammatory response to infection and the strength of this response depends on the differentiated cell types in the organoids. The presence of stem cells in the human adult stomach is expected, yet has not been shown previously. The organoids we present here can be grown from fluorescence-activated cell sorter–isolated single cells and generate 4 lineages of the stomach: pit mucous cells, gland mucous cells, chief cells, and enteroendocrine cells. Of the enteroendocrine cells, we identified SST-expressing cells, but not CP-868596 molecular weight corpus-specific ECL cells. We also could not detect parietal cells. We assume the culture conditions were not optimal to allow differentiation into these cell types. Once clonal organoids are established, they expand without apparent limitation (>1 y), defying the Hayflick limit. Thus, the isolated cells can self-renew and are long-lived and multipotent, fulfilling the classic criteria for stem cells. In the intestine, the pathologic activation of the Wnt pathway in cancer represents a deregulation

of the controlled activation necessary for normal stem cell–driven tissue homeostasis.25 In the stomach, the role of the Wnt pathway is less clear. Up to 30% of gastric tumors are found to carry an activated Wnt pathway,26 and 27 whereas mutations in the Wnt pathway drive tumorigenesis in the mouse.4 and 28 Two of the known stem Verteporfin price cell markers in the mouse stomach, Troy and Lgr5, are Wnt target genes.4 and 11 Here, we provide additional evidence for the importance of the Wnt pathway in human gastric epithelium. First, establishment and growth of human gastric organoids depends on Wnt and R-Spondin1. Second, on withdrawal of Wnt, organoids differentiate into pit lineage cultures. In the intestine, the Wnt-secreting Paneth cells provide the niche for stem cells17 and competition for niche space determines the fate of the stem cell daughter cells.5 and 6 It seems likely that there is a Wnt source at the bottom of gastric glands and that the migration of daughter cells upward toward the gastric surface directs the differentiation into the pit lineage.

, 2002). Furthermore, the combination see more of high temperatures and humidity increases the incident rate during the summer months, when scorpions become more active

( Barbosa et al., 2012). Currently, approximately 70% of scorpionism cases occur within urban areas, in or around residences. Scorpion accidents occur more in individuals between 20 and 49 years of age. However, the largest proportion of deaths is observed in individuals younger than 14 years of age ( Ministério da Saúde, 2001). Symptoms resulting from scorpion stings are variable and can be grouped into three stages depending on the severity of the poisoning. In most cases, the initial envenomation is benign and reaches stage I, which is characterised by intense pain in most cases (stage Ia), as well as stirring, fever, sweating, nausea and blood pressure fluctuation (Stage Ib). Severe cases progress from Stage I

to Stage II (5–10% of cases), which is characterised by sweating, vomiting, cramps, diarrhoea, hypotension, bradycardia, pulmonary obstruction and dyspnoea. The last and most dangerous stage is Stage III, which is characterised by respiratory complications such as pulmonary oedema, bronchospasm, and cyanosis and can be associated with hyperthermia, find more cardiac arrhythmia and myocardial ischemia (Chippaux and Goyffon, 2008). The severity of scorpion envenomation is much greater

in children but varies with the scorpion species, age, and size (Amitai, 1998). The treatment of scorpion accidents involve symptomatic measures, support of vital functions, and, in severe cases, serum therapy. The genus Tityus contains the largest number of scorpion species. Over 60% of scorpions found in tropical and subtropical regions belong to this genus ( Ministério da Saúde, 2001). In Brazil, the three Tityus species Tityus serrulatus (yellow scorpion), Tityus bahiensis (brown scorpion), and Tityus stigmurus are the main causes of scorpionism in humans ( Bucaretchi et al., 1995; Eickstedt et al., 1996). Tityus serrulatus is the Brazilian scorpion that causes the most serious accidents, with mortality rates of approximately Chloroambucil 1% among children and the elderly. This species is widely distributed throughout the country, reaching the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Paraná and Rio de Janeiro ( Ministério da Saúde, 2001). One of the factors contributing to its proliferation and distribution is the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis ( Lourenço, 2008) which complicates the control of these arachnids. T. stigmurus is another scorpion species of clinical relevance, which is also capable of parthenogenesis and is distributed predominantly in the northeastern region of the country.

One cannot underestimate the technical requirements involved in this treatment. In the report of the study by Huberty et al,14 it is emphasized that only “expert endoscopists” performed this procedure. Although this is not mentioned in this report, some authors have noted that an average of 60 minutes is required

to perform flexible cricopharyngeal myotomy.12 Endoscopic cricopharyngeal myotomy shares common techniques and tools that can be borrowed from those used to perform endoscopic mucosal dissection18 (eg, hook-knife8 [Fig. 1B]) and peroral endoscopic myotomy.19 With advancements and increased use of these techniques, experienced therapeutic endoscopists should be well equipped to perform transoral flexible endoscopic therapy of ZD. Overall, we believe that the work by Huberty et al14 FXR agonist provides strong support for transoral flexible endoscopic treatment of ZD and the opportunity for gastroenterologists to expand their therapeutic armamentarium. Although one might perceive this as an infringement on the turf of surgeons, it is more an opportunity for greater collaboration because some patients will clearly be best served with a traditional anti-CTLA-4 antibody surgical approach as the initial treatment as well as failures and recurrences after flexible endoscopic therapy. It also may be that the ultimate endoscopic approach evolves from

a combination of gastroenterological and surgical techniques. Until that point, selected expert therapeutic endoscopists may carefully consider developing this therapy for their patients but with the caveats noted previously. Ideally, properly oxyclozanide performed comparative trials of transoral flexible endoscopic and rigid endoscopic myotomy are needed. The authors disclosed no financial relationships

relevant to this publication. “
“Esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) is a highly lethal cancer and continues to be the most rapidly increasing cancer in the United States and the Western world.1 The availability of effective and relatively easy to use endoscopic eradication therapy for Barrett’s esophagus (BE)–associated high-grade dysplasia (HGD) and early esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) makes a compelling argument for accurate and timely detection of dysplasia/cancer in BE. White-light endoscopy (WLE) can detect visible lesions within the BE segment but relies on random biopsies for detection of inconspicuous flat dysplasia/cancer. Random sampling of BE mucosa not only adds to missed opportunities for intervention, but also to the cost by requiring a greater number of biopsies. This has led to evaluation and application of novel imaging techniques such as autofluorescence imaging (AFI) and narrow-band imaging (NBI). However, their use is limited mostly to tertiary referral centers because of the challenges associated with recognition of abnormal/irregular patterns detected by these novel techniques.

06 m s−1 at t = 2 days. The transverse circulation modifies the salinity/density field, producing a downward-bending of density contours and horizontal density gradients in BBL on the southern flank of the channel which, in accordance with the thermal wind relation, click here can provide a geostrophically

balanced decrease of the gravity current velocity towards the bottom without the Ekman veering; such a process is referred to as Ekman layer arrest ( Garrett et al. 1993). As a result, the northward (positive) transverse velocities summing the Ekman velocities and the geostrophic velocities due to the down-channel pressure gradient fade below the core and even become slightly negative, while the southward transverse jet-like flow with speeds of about 0.03 m s−1 still persists in the density interface just above the core (see the bottom right-hand plot in Figure 4). Such a reversal of the near-bottom transverse

current is caused by the thermal wind shear due to the presence of lateral, cross-channel density gradients below the interface ( Umlauf & Arneborg buy CYC202 2009b, Umlauf et al. 2010). All the above-mentioned features of the channelized gravity current revealed by means of simulation, including the pinching-spreading effect, the existence of a lateral density gradient and vertical density homogenization in the southern flank below the core of the current, the establishment of a transverse circulation with a southward transverse interfacial jet and a near-bottom current reversal, have been observed in a channel-like constriction Sinomenine of the Arkona Basin (Umlauf & Arneborg 2009a) and reproduced numerically by Burchard et al. (2009). To check whether a rotating gravity current is frictionally

controlled, one has to estimate different terms of the bulk (vertically integrated) down- channel momentum balance and the non-dimensional Froude and Ekman numbers characterizing the variety of flow regimes. Following e.g. Arneborg et al. (2007), the bulk buoyancy B   and thickness H   of a gravity current may be defined as equation(1) BH=∫zb∞bdz,12BH2=∫zb∞b(z−zb)dz,where b=−g(ρ−ρ∞)/ρ∞b=−g(ρ−ρ∞)/ρ∞ is the negative buoyancy of gravity flow with respect to the overlying ambient fluid of density ρ∞ρ∞ and zero buoyancy (b → 0 at z → ∞), g   = 9.81 m s−2 is the acceleration due to gravity, and the lower integration limit lies at the bottom (z   = zb  ). The Froude number (Fr), the Ekman number (Ek) and the Ekman layer depth are introduced as equation(2) Fr=U(−BH)1/2,Ek=(δEH)2,δE=u*2fU,where U   is the vertically averaged (bulk) velocity of the gravity current, u*2=−τx/ρ∞ is the squared friction velocity, τx is the down-channel bottom stress and f is the Coriolis parameter.

sun’ model) is simplified compared to fully 3D radiative transfer techniques like Monte Carlo or SHDOM. The aim of this paper is to estimate the influence of the land topography and cover on 3D radiative effects under overcast skies in the Arctic coastal environment, in particular in the region of the Hornsund fjord, Spitsbergen. The authors focus on the impact of a non-uniform surface on: (1) spatial distribution of solar fluxes reaching the fjord surface, (2) spectral cloud radiative forcing at the check details fjord surface, (3) the anomaly in surface irradiance resulting from the assumption of a uniform surface, and (4) remote sensing of cloud optical thickness over the fjord. The analysis

is based on Monte Carlo simulations of solar radiation transfer over a heterogeneous surface for selected channels of a MODIS radiometer. The Hornsund region was selected for this study because of the research laboratory role it plays in the Arctic. For example, it is one of the flag sites for biodiversity studies. Glaciological and oceanographic studies have also been done there for many decades. The outline of the paper is as follows. The models of the atmosphere, the surface

topography and albedo as well as the Monte LDK378 cost Carlo radiative transfer technique used in the simulations are presented in section 2, methods. Section 3 presents the results of the simulations, that is, surface distributions of the modelled irradiance transmittance and spectral cloud radiative forcing at the fjord surface, nadir radiances at the TOA over the fjord and the anomaly in the domain-averaged slope-parallel irradiance at the surface due to assumption of a uniform surface. Their dependence on spectral channel, cloud optical thickness, cloud type, cloud base height, surface albedo and solar zenith angle is discussed. Section 4 summarizes the conclusions. Digitized 1:100 000 maps of Svalbard (UTM 33X projection, ellipsoid ED50, Norsk Polarinstitutt), sheets C13 Sorkapland, C12 Markhambreen and B12 Torellbreen as well as a Digital Elevation Model (Kolondra 2002) and orthophotomap of Werenskioldbreen and surrounding

areas, Spitsbergen, Svalbard (UTM 33X projection, ellipsoid WGS84, Werenskioldbreen and surrounding areas 2002) were used mafosfamide to develop a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Hornsund area. A 200-metre cell grid was used as ‘the ground’ (the Earth’s surface) in the radiative transfer model. The surface between four neighbouring grid nodes was approximated by the following function (Ricchiazzi & Gautier 1998): equation(1) z=a0x+a1y+a2xy+a3,z=a0x+a1y+a2xy+a3, where x, y and z are the coordinates of a given point of a pixel (a grid cell) surface and a0, a1, a2 and a3 are coefficients fitted to the coordinates of the cell nodes. This approximation provides a continuous Earth’s surface without unrealistic ‘steps’. The working DEM of the Hornsund area covers an area of 51.40 km (X axis, W-E) × 34.40 km (Y axis S-N).