, 2002, Wright et al., 2003, Wright, 2009 and Bartel et al., 2010), nutrient processing Dolutegravir research buy and biogeochemical reactions ( Correll et al., 2000 and Rosell et

al., 2005), and carbon storage over time scales of 101–103 years ( Wohl et al., 2012), and (iii) a stable ecosystem state that can persist over periods of 102–103 years ( Kramer et al., 2012 and Polvi and Wohl, 2012). Removal of beaver, either directly as in trapping, or indirectly as in competition with grazing animals such as elk or climate change that causes small perennial streams to become intermittent, drives the beaver meadow across a threshold. Several case studies (e.g., Green and Westbrook, 2009 and Polvi and Wohl, 2012) indicate that within one to two decades the beaver meadow becomes what has been called an elk grassland (Wolf et al., 2007) (Fig. 3). As beaver dams fall into disrepair or are removed, peak flows are more likely to be contained within a mainstem channel. Secondary channels become inactive and the riparian water table declines. Peak flows concentrated in a single channel are more erosive: the mainstem channel through the former beaver meadow incises and/or widens, and sediment yields to downstream click here portions of the river increase (Green

and Westbrook, 2009). Nutrient retention and biological processing decline, organic matter is no longer regularly added to floodplain and channel storage, and stored organic matter is more likely to be oxidized and eroded. As floodplain soils dry out, burrowing rodents can introduce through their feces the spores of ectomyccorhizal fungi, and the fungi facilitate encroachment by species of conifer such as Picea (spp.) that require

the fungi to take up soil nutrients ( Terwilliger and Pastor, 1999). Once a Cediranib (AZD2171) channel is incised into a dry meadow with limited deciduous riparian vegetation that supplies beaver food, reestablishment of beaver is difficult, and the elk meadow becomes an alternative stable state for that segment of the river. Beaver were largely trapped out of the Colorado Front Range during the first three decades of the 19th century (Fremont, 1845 and Wohl, 2001), but beaver populations began to recover within a half century. Beaver population censuses for selected locales within the region of Rocky Mountain National Park date to 1926, shortly after establishment of the park in 1915. Censuses have continued up to the present, and these records indicate that beaver were moderately abundant in the park until circa 1976. As of 2012, almost no beaver remain in Rocky Mountain National Park. This contrasts strongly with other catchments in the Front Range, where beaver populations have remained stable or increased since 1940.

26 mg kg−1 of dry soil in the autumn of 2009 (Fig. 2L). The NO3− concentrations at the 5–10 cm and 10–15 cm depths exhibited minor variations between seasons. Different yr-old ginseng exhibited similar seasonal trends for NO3− concentrations. The soil moisture at the 10–15 cm depth remained constant; however, in the 0–5 cm and 5–10 cm this website depths it decreased in summer and autumn and increased the following spring for all of the ginseng bed soils (Fig. 2K–O). Soil bulk density was always < 1 g cm−3 and increased by 30–40% during a 1-yr cycle for the different aged

ginseng fields (Fig. 2P–T). Although the soil bulk density in the 3-yr-old ginseng beds was kept relatively constant, a value of approximately 0.85 g cm−3 was higher than all of the other data, consistent

with the proposal that ginseng planting resulted in soil compaction and loss of air and water. Soil pH fluctuated from 3.8 to 5.2 throughout the three depths and tended to decrease within seasons in the different aged ginseng beds (Fig. 3A–E). Correlation analysis showed a soil pH that was significantly correlated with concentrations of NH4+ (r = 0.465, p < 0.01, n = 60) and Ex-Ca2+ (r = 0.325, p < 0.01, n = 60). The Ex-Al3+ concentrations fluctuated from 0.10 mg g−1 to 0.50 mg g−1 for dry soils and showed significant correlation with NO3− (r = 0.401, n = 60, p < 0.01). The Ex-Al3+ concentrations increased in the summer and further increased Docetaxel research buy in the autumn; then, there was a decrease in the different aged ginseng beds the following spring ( Fig. 3F–I). The Ex-Al3+ concentrations at the three depths of the ginseng bed planted 2 yrs previously were higher compared to those in the same depths of the different-aged ginseng bed ( Fig. 3L). The ginseng bed soils contained higher TOC concentrations that fluctuated from 50.1 mg kg−1 to 94.8 mg kg−1 of dry soil (Fig. 3K–O), which was positively correlated with the

pH (r = 0.293, p < 0.05, n = 60) and negatively correlated with the Ex-Al3+ (r = −0.329, n = 60, p < 0.05) content. The TOC concentrations had no obvious spatial variation, tended to decrease within a 1-yr cycle and reached their lowest levels in the 3-yr-old and transplanted 2-yr ginseng bed ( Fig. 3M,O). This was consistent with the view that ginseng growth will decrease the organic matter content Meloxicam of bed soils [1]. Al that is extracted with Na-pyrophosphate (Alp) is used as a proxy for Al in organic complexes. The Alp tended to decrease within a 1-yr cycle and was positively correlated with TOC concentrations (r   = 0.425, p   < 0.01, n   = 60), NH4+ concentrations (r = 0.34, p < 0.01, n = 60) and pH (r = 0.370, p < 0.01, n = 60; Fig. 3P–T). For the transplanted 2-yr-old ginseng beds, the Alp was constant, but the values were the lowest of all of the soil samples ( Fig. 3T). The Al saturation was calculated in the present study as an indicator of soil acidification and Al toxicity levels (Table 1).

P. to A.D. 1750 (Fig. 1) (all B.P. dates in this article are in calibrated calendar years). Perhaps not surprisingly, researchers have often found the most significant indicators of the Holocene–Anthropocene transition, and sometimes the only indicators of interest, within the boundaries of their own discipline. http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Rapamycin.html In first proposing the use of the term “Anthropocene” for the current geological epoch Crutzen and Stoermer (2000)

identify the latter part of the 18th century as marking the Holocene–Anthropocene boundary because it is over the past two centuries that the global effects of human activities have become clearly noticeable. Although they discuss a wide range of different defining characteristics of the Anthropocene Alectinib epoch (e.g., human population growth, urbanization, mechanized predation of fisheries, modification of landscapes), Crutzen and Stoermer (2000) identify global scale atmospheric changes (increases in carbon dioxide and methane) resulting from the industrial revolution as the key indicator of the onset of the Anthropocene: “This is the period when data retrieved from glacial ice cores show the beginning

of a growth in the atmospheric concentrations of several “greenhouse gases”, in particular CO2 and CH4…Such a starting date also coincides with James Watt’s invention of the steam engine” (Crutzen and Stoermer, 2000, p. 17). At the same time that they propose placing the Holocene–Anthropocene boundary in the second half of the 18th century, and identify a single global scale marker for the transition, Crutzen and Stoermer (2000) also acknowledge that human modification of the earth’s ecosystems Amylase has been gradually increasing throughout the post-glacial period of the past 10,000–12,000 years, and that other Holocene–Anthropocene transition points could be proposed: “During the Holocene mankind’s activities gradually grew into a significant geological, morphological force”; “To assign a more specific date to

the onset of the “Anthropocene” seems somewhat arbitrary”; “we are aware that alternative proposals can be made (some may even want to include the entire holocene)” (Crutzen and Stoermer, 2000, p. 17). In a 2011 article, two soil scientists, Giacomo Certini and Riccardo Scalenghe, question whether the Anthropocene starts in the late 18th century, and reject Crutzen and Stoermer’s use of an increase in greenhouse gasses associated with the industrial revolution as an onset marker. They argue that a “change in atmospheric composition is unsuitable as a criterion to define the start of the Anthropocene“, both because greenhouse gas levels do not reflect the “substantial total impact of humans on the total environment “, and because “ice layers, with their sealed contaminated air bubbles lack permanence” since “they are prone to be canceled by ongoing climatic warming” (Certini and Scalenghe, 2011, pp. 1270, 1273).

Stop-signal reaction time scores (SSRTs) were estimated for each participant using the ANALYZE-IT software provided by Verbruggen

et al. (2008). The mean Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor stop-signal delay was calculated and then subtracted from the mean untrimmed response time for all go trials. The overall mean SSRT was 273 ms (SD = 37 ms), and SSRTs in the category-cued (M = 271 ms, SD = 38 ms) and category-plus-stem (M = 275 ms, SD = 35 ms) conditions did not differ, t < 1. Further analysis of the distribution of SSRT scores failed to observe significant skew (category-plus-stem: .23, SE = .31; category-cued: .01, SE = .30) or kurtosis (category-plus-stem: −.04, SE = .61; category-cued: −.20, SE = .59) in either condition. To examine our hypothesis about the role of inhibitory control

in retrieval-induced forgetting, we first examined the relationship between SSRT and retrieval-induced forgetting in the category-plus-stem-cued recall group, in which the effects of competition at test are better controlled. As shown in the bottom panel of Fig. 2, a significant negative correlation between SSRT and RIF-Z was observed, r = −.31, p = .02. That is, the faster the stop-signal reaction time, the greater the level of retrieval-induced forgetting for participants in the category-plus-stem condition, consistent see more with the expectation that retrieval-induced forgetting on this test is positively related to inhibitory control ability. According to the correlated costs and benefits argument, however, the relationship between retrieval-induced forgetting and SSRT should be weaker on tests in which blocking has a greater potential of affecting performance on the final test. Consistent with this prediction, and as shown in the top panel of Fig. 2, a very different relationship emerged for participants in the category-cued condition, with participants in that condition showing a significant BCKDHA positive correlation between SSRT and RIF-Z, r = .27,

p = .03. To further establish the importance of test conditions on the relationship between SSRT and retrieval-induced forgetting, a hierarchical regression analysis was carried out to examine the proportion of variance in RIF-Z scores explained by SSRT, Type of Test, and the SSRT × Type of Test interaction. As expected, the first step, which included SSRT and Type of Test as predictors, did not produce a significant model, F(2, 122) < 1, R2 = .00. Including the SSRT × Type of Test interaction term in the second step, however, did produce a significant model, F(3,121) = 3.18, p = .02, R2 = .08, and the interaction term accounted for significant additional variance, F(1, 121) = 10.75, p = .001, ΔR2 = .08, thus confirming that the relationship between SSRT and retrieval-induced forgetting did vary significantly as a function of test condition.

To mitigate further infilling of sediment, and to scour the elevated river-bed, the Yellow River Conservancy Commission of the Ministry of Water Resources has performed WSM annually through the Xiaolangdi Dam since 2002 (Fig. 5). WSM releases the stored water in the Xiaolangdi reservoir to carry trapped sediment to the lower reaches. This process also scours the elevated riverbed. The WSM typically uses artificial find more hyperpycnal flow to facilitate sediment

removal from the Xiaolangdi reservoir. WSM often transfers substantial amounts of water and sediment between large reservoirs in both the main river stem and its tributaries. Table 5 lists key information about WSM regimes during 2002–2011. Although executed typically once a year, WSM was performed twice in 2007 and three times in 2010. Moreover, WSM can be performed either before

or during the flood season, with durations of 8–24 days. The volume of scoured sediment varies greatly Lumacaftor cost in response to different releasing practices. And the suspended sediment concentration is controlled lower than 40 kg/m3. Information about the WSM regime during 2002–2013. The volume of water released from the Xiaolangdi dam through WSM ranges from 18.1 × 108 m3 to 57 × 108 m3. This volume often necessitates water transfers from other reservoirs such as Sanmenxia and some tributary reservoirs. Satellite images show an example of water

and sediment transfers from the Sanmenxia dam to the Xiaolangdi dam during operation Parvulin of the WSM in 2009 (Fig. 6). During the WSM period, large amounts of water are released from the Xiaolangdi dam at a high velocity (2400–4270 m3/s). The released floodwaters scour the sandy riverbed in the lower reaches, making the water more turbid. Turbid water flowing in the lower Huanghe during WSM is also shown in the satellite-derived images (Fig. 7). As shown in Table 5, an average of 4.04 × 106 tons of sediment can be delivered to the sea every day over a short period when WSM is in operation. This high sediment input leads to abrupt increases in the extent of the sediment plume at the Huanghe river mouth, as shown in Fig. 8. The two images on the right in Fig. 8 depict the sharp increases in the extent of the sediment plume during WSM in 2009 and 2012. These increases contrast with the minor plume before WSM, when low runoff was discharged into the sea. Since 2008, part of the WSM water has been diverted to the delta’s wetlands, which have been degrading due to depletion of freshwater nutrient. As shown in Fig. 8, the dried wetlands near the river mouth were irrigated by the freshwater diverted from the stream-flow during WSM.

g., avalanches, debris flows, rock-falls, causing problems of particular relevance for protection forests services ( Brang et al., 2006 and Beghin et al., 2010), including water supply. Moreover, large fires at the rural–urban interface involve civil protection issues ( Höchtl et al., 2005 and Ascoli and Bovio, 2010) and increasing costs due to post-fire restoration ( Beghin et al.,

2010, Wohlgemuth et al., 2010 and Ascoli et al., 2013a). On the contrary, the second generation of large fires, e.g., in the south-western Alps in 1989–90, characterized by mixed severity effects, i.e., a mosaic of low, intermediate and high severity stand replacing phases, might promote structural and species diversity in formerly exploited forests (e.g., chestnut and beech coppice woodlands, conifer

plantations) that are now no more managed, thus accelerating MG-132 concentration the transition to alternative ecosystem states dominated by semi-natural ecological processes, e.g., Moretti et al. (2006), Maringer et al. (2012), Ascoli et al. (2013a), Fernandes et al. (2013), which is the aim of forest management in most unproductive forested areas of the Alps. Concerns about the long-term consequences of uncharacteristic fire regimes, and expected benefits from planning fire use, recently gave rise to a discussion about the suitability of implementing prescribed burning programmes in the Alpine environment (Lemonnier-Darcemont, 2003, Bernard-Laurent and Weber, 2007, Lyet et al., 2009, Valese et al., 2011b and Ascoli et al., 2013b). In particular, prescribed find more burning has been applied since the beginning of the 1980s over relatively large areas in the French Alps (e.g., ∼2000 ha yr−1 in the Department of Alpes Maritimes) both to regulate pastoral fire use (Fig. 8) and to abate fire risk by periodically reducing hazardous fuels in fuel oxyclozanide breaks strategically placed in the landscape (Fernandes et al., 2013). Long-term results (>20

yrs) of prescribed burning programmes in the French Alps have shown a shift from a fire regime characterized by uncontrolled fires, usually on high fire danger days, with a high inter-annual variability in overall burnt area, to a prescribed burning regime of lower severity and on a yearly planned area (Réseau Brûlage Dirigé, 2012). Experimental prescribed burning for similar objectives has also been carried out in the Italian Alps (Ascoli and Bovio, 2013), both to prevent the surreptitious use of fire by shepherds and to preserve habitats of interest included in the Habitat Directive (HD) 92/43/EEC, such as Calluna heathlands (cod. HD: 4030) in the western Alps ( Ascoli et al., 2013b), eastern sub-Mediterranean dry grasslands (Scorzoneretalia villosae – cod. HD: 62A0) and lowland hay meadows (Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis – cod. HD: 6510) in the eastern Alps ( Valese et al., 2011b).

The results gave Kd values with 95% confidence intervals of 2.0 μM (0.18–2.27 μM) for E156A, 6.7 μM (6.4–7.1 μM) for L163A, and 13.0 μM (10–15 μM) for the S165G/T168A double mutant. The I164A mutation produced a much greater disruption, such that we can set only a lower limit on the Kd of 200 μM or larger. selleck products We also screened two additional sets of KA2 mutants in regions of the structure which might be anticipated to affect heterodimer formation. The first set tested, KA2 C64S/C315S, targeted the disulfide bond which holds loop three in place (Figure 5A). The second set targeted Lys148 and Glu150 at

the N terminus of α-helix E, which were candidates for mediating contacts with His105, Ser108 and Asp109 in domain R1 of the GluR6 protomer. However, both the C64S/C315S and K148A/E150A KA2 double mutants produced no change in oligomerization when mixed with either GluR6Δ2 Erastin cell line or GluR6Δ2 F58A and analyzed by UV/RI/MALS-SEC (Figure S5). The lack of effect of

loop 3 disulfide bond disruption likely occurs because, in a heterodimer assembly with GluR6, loop 3 of the KA2 subunit is held in place by other contacts such as the hydrogen bond between the main chain carbonyl oxygen of Cys315 and the side chain of Lys62 in the GluR6 subunit. We were unable to test the effect of the GluR6 C65S/C316S mutant, because this construct could not be expressed at levels sufficient for biochemical analysis, possibly due to misfolding. The interactions made by Lys148 and Glu150 with

the GluR6 subunit are formed in solvent exposed loops with weak electron density, and it is likely that this region is quite mobile, since our results reveal that it does not contribute to dimer stability. To estimate the strength of the interactions underlying dimer formation we purified a series of 15 mutant ATD proteins and measured their Kd for homodimer and heterodimer formation using SV experiments. To select mutant combinations suitable for analysis by SV we performed SEC-UV/RI/MALS experiments to assay for either depletion of the Protein kinase N1 monomer KA2 peak when mixed with GluR6Δ2, or an increase in dimer peak when mixed with GluR6Δ2F58A (Figures 1C and S5A; Table S1). Out of 30 combinations tested, 13 pairs were selected for analysis by SV; examples of isotherms for weighted-average sedimentation coefficients for KA2 mutants mixed with GluR6Δ2F58A and GluR6Δ2 are shown in Figures 4C and S5C, respectively. To calculate ΔΔG values we used SV measurements for the GluR6Δ2 homodimer Kd (250 nM), the KA2 homodimer Kd (350 μM), and the GluR6Δ2/KA2 heterodimer Kd (11 nM), as reference values (Table S1). The formation of GluR6Δ2/KA2 heterodimers is favored by 6.04 kcal/mol compared to the KA2 subunit homodimer Kd.

GP input has been shown in brain slices to reset the phase of autonomous spiking within the STN (Baufreton et al., 2005), and resonant feedback

between GP and STN has been repeatedly proposed as an oscillatory mechanism (Bevan et al., 2002, Holgado et al., 2010 and Mallet et al., 2008a). Determining how BG interconnections contribute to behavior-linked beta change is an important challenge for future studies. We observed multiple, dissociable relationships between beta processes and behavioral events. First, each of the auditory cues resulted in very rapid beta phase reset, often without simultaneous changes in beta power. Reset of ongoing rhythms check details by salient cues has been previously reported in multiple cortical regions, for a range of oscillatory frequencies including beta (Lakatos et al., 2007). Such resets are largely independent of sensory modality, and have been proposed to reflect a rapid modulatory process that causes incoming sensory information to arrive in cortex when neurons are at a phase of peak excitability. The resulting facilitation of sensory processing may help reduce reaction times to attended instruction cues (Senkowski et al., 2006). Similarly, within monkey primary motor cortex the appearance of a visual reach

target, and/or an associated auditory cue, provokes very rapid beta reset (Reimer and Hatsopoulos, 2010) that appears to be the same reset phenomenon that we observed throughout cortical-BG circuits. Such a coordinated phase AZD8055 reset may enhance effective communication between regions (Fries, 2005). Both the short latency of the phase reset (within tens of milliseconds) PD184352 (CI-1040) and the fact that the reset to Stop cues did not differentiate between Stop-success and Stop-failure trials indicate that this aspect of cortical-BG coordination is linked to early stages of sensory processing. Each of the auditory

cues used in the task was also followed by an increase in beta power, with a latency of several hundred milliseconds. However, this beta ERS appeared only if the cues influenced behavioral output. Such selectivity was seen in two distinct situations: first, the beta ERS to the Stop cue occurred on Stop-success but not Stop-failure trials, and second, in the Deferred-Go task the beta ERS to the Go cue occurred only when the rats used this external cue to prompt their responses, rather than performing self-timed movements. These complementary observations clearly demonstrate that the beta ERS is not simply related to sensory processing. Nor is it simply related to movement, or the absence of movement. Beta power was reduced below baseline as animals held still while waiting for an instruction cue. Once this cue occurred, we saw an equivalent beta ERS whether rats initiated action (in the Immediate-GO condition) or continued to hold (in the Deferred-GO and NOGO conditions).

, 2009, Sutton and Barto, 1998 and Watkins and Dayan, 1992) to each subject’s sequence of choices. To account for the observed decrease in learning, we implemented an exponentially decreasing half-life time as a free model parameter

that reduces the learning rate in later trials providing single-trial estimates of the learning rate (αt). Maximum likelihood estimated (MLE) learning parameters of the model did not differ for learning from real and fictive outcomes ( Table 1), indicating Crenolanib ic50 that subjects could utilize both sources of information with similar efficiency. This is also supported by the fact that sensitivity to misleading probabilistic feedback did not differ significantly between real and fictive conditions ( Supplemental Information available online). MLEs of the half-life time indicated an average decrease of αt of more than 90% in both conditions per block. Additionally, negative log-likelihood (−LL) did not differ when compared between good and bad stimuli. Submitting feedback-locked EEG epochs to multiple robust regression analysis (Cohen and Cavanagh, 2011, O’Leary, 1990 and Rousselet Trichostatin A et al., 2008) revealed a double

dissociation of cortical PE correlates between real and fictive outcomes in the first 400 ms following feedback. Intriguingly, the first significant covariation of feedback-locked EEG activity with PEs was found exclusively for fictive outcomes: a negative early occipital effect occurred 192–238 ms after feedback (Figure 2A and Movie S1) and was localized to extrastriate visual and posteromedial cortex (PMC; Figure S2A). Phosphoprotein phosphatase In contrast, only real outcomes were associated with a somewhat later positive early PE effect spanning from 236–294 ms and a subsequent negative midlatency frontal PE covariation at 336–430 ms, which in the averaged

event-related potentials (ERPs) give rise to the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and P3a components, respectively (Figure 3). Direct contrasts between both conditions showed significant differences at electrode Oz during the time window of the occipital PE effect (peak t30 = −4.18, 204 ms, p < 0.0005) and at electrode FCz during FRN (peak t30 = 4.95, 284 ms, p < 10−4), as well as P3a time windows (peak t30 = −7.95, 394 ms, p < 10−8) ( Figure 4B). The temporospatial double dissociation in early processing of real and fictive feedback was statistically confirmed by a triple interaction of the factors electrode, time window, and condition in an ANOVA on the average regression weights of the early PE effects in significant time windows (190–240 ms and 250–300 ms, for fictive and real feedback, respectively) at the most significant electrodes (Oz and FCz, for fictive and real feedback, respectively). The FRN is usually found on unfavorable outcomes that violate expectancies (Gehring and Willoughby, 2002 and Miltner et al., 1997).

115 Furthermore, exercise fat oxidation was not affected when an LGI or HGI meal was provided the evening before116 and 117; this suggests that the “second meal effect” does not apply to fat oxidation. In the only study, we are aware of, to investigate GI and substrate oxidation in young people, Zakrzewski et al.65 examined the effect of HGI and LGI mixed-breakfast meals

on fat oxidation in overweight and non-overweight girls. They focused on the 2-h postprandial rest period and a subsequent 30-min walk at 50% V̇O2peak. Although breakfast GI did this website not affect postprandial fat oxidation during rest or exercise in either group of girls, it is noteworthy that LGI breakfast consumption resulted in 12% higher exercise fat oxidation (adjusted for fat free mass (FFM)) in both groups, a finding that may have meaningful health-related

implications if experienced regularly over an extended period.102 The similar insulin response between HGI and LGI reported in this study may have underpinned the similarity in fat oxidation.106 Furthermore, fructose has a lower GI than glucose, but results in higher blood lactate concentrations.127 It is possible that higher lactate concentrations compromised fat oxidation following the LGI breakfast through direct inhibition Akt inhibitor ic50 of adipose tissue FFA release.128 Indeed, resting fat oxidation was lower FAD after high fructose compared with high glucose meals in obese adults, despite lower glucose and insulin responses to the high fructose

meal.119 It is also possible that the 1.5 g CHO/kg body mass breakfast, 2-h postprandial period, and 30-min exercise duration at 50% V̇O2peak was a sub-optimal combination to induce differences in fat oxidation between HGI and LGI. However, higher exercise fat oxidation following LGI breakfasts has been reported 45 min to 3 h85 and 120 following breakfasts containing 1–2.5 g CHO/kg body mass during exercise lasting 60 or 30 min at 50%–71% V̇O2peak in adults.85 and 114 It is, therefore, difficult to ascertain which factors contribute specifically to the higher fat oxidation following LGI breakfasts in some adult studies. Furthermore, differences in fat metabolism between adolescents and adults129 may have resulted in discrepancies between this study and some of the adult literature. Consequently, these results require confirmation with larger independent samples of young people. It has been suggested that the reduced-fat oxidation following HGI breakfasts is largely due to the higher insulin response, which increases muscle glycogen stores and utilisation, resulting in higher CHO and lower fat oxidation.114 Indeed, Wee et al.